REVIEW ARTICLES

Miastenia gravis în sarcină – o abordare multidisciplinară

 Myasthenia gravis in pregnancy – a multidisciplinary approach

First published: 12 iulie 2022

Editorial Group: MEDICHUB MEDIA

DOI: 10.26416/ObsGin.70.2.2022.6675

Abstract

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune condition that mainly affects young women (in the second or third decade of life) and is characterized by clinical symptoms ranging from fluctuating muscle weakness in the scapular and pelvic girdle to res­piratory, ocular and bulb symptoms. Counseling and preconception planning, the assessment of the impact of pregnancy on the disease, the possible maternal-fetal complications in the first trimester and postpartum, the prophylaxis of myasthenic and cholinergic seizures, the teratogenic potential of medication, the careful fetal monitoring, the intrapartum features of analgesia and anesthesia and the management of neonatal myasthenia gravis are many problems that must be carefully monitored during pregnancy. These goals are achieved through the efforts of a multidisciplinary team. Therefore, women with MG should be supported in their desire to become pregnant and advised to give birth in tertiary medical units that manage high-risk pregnancies and ensure good neonatal intensive care.

Keywords
myasthenia gravis, pregnancy, neonatal myasthenia, breastfeeding, autoimmunity, teratogenicity

Rezumat

Miastenia gravis (MG) este o afecţiune autoimună care afectează în principal femeile tinere (în a doua sau a treia decadă de viaţă) şi se caracterizează prin simptome clinice variind de la slăbiciune musculară fluctuantă în centura scapulară şi pelviană până la afectare respiratorie, oculară şi bulbară. Consilierea preconcepţională şi planificarea sarcinii, evaluarea impactului sarcinii asupra bolii, posibilele complicaţii materno-fetale în primul trimestru şi post-partum, profilaxia convulsiilor miastenice şi colinergice, potenţialul teratogen al medicaţiei, monitorizarea atentă a fătului, caracteristicile intrapartum ale analgeziei şi anesteziei, alături de managementul miasteniei gravis neonatale sunt tot atâtea probleme care trebuie monitorizate cu atenţie în timpul sarcinii. Aceste obiective sunt atinse prin eforturile unei echipe multidisciplinare. Prin urmare, femeile cu MG trebuie susţinute în dorinţa lor de a rămâne însărcinate şi sfătuite să nască în unităţi medicale terţiare care gestionează sarcinile cu risc ridicat şi asigură o terapie intensivă neonatală bună.

1. Introduction

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease caused by a decrease in nicotinic receptors in the neuronal transmission junction by the presence of anticholinergic receptors – IgG1-dominant antibodies to acetylcholine receptors (AChR), which block the transmission of acetylcholine in the junction or antibodies against muscle-specific protein kinase called MuSK. Thus, the impulse electricity is no longer transmitted to the muscles and they are no longer stimulated. Paralysis usually affects the small muscles, but all the body muscles are generally affected. Thymus tumors and thymic hyperplasia can cause the production of these antibodies. MG is a disease that occurs two times more often in women than in males and generally affects women in the second or third decade of life, which corresponds to the period when women want to conceive a child, the clinical onset of the disease being most common after the birth of the first child(1). MG’s possible triggers are extreme stress, infections, pregnancy, inhalation anesthetics, neuromuscular blockers, antibiotics (e.g., macrolides, aminoglycosides), antipsychotics, magnesium, corticosteroids and estrogens(2).

Among patients with MG, about 15% have a thymoma, and 60-80% have thymic hyperplasia that leads to the production of AChR antibodies.

Thymectomy can be performed before the pregnancy, thus improving the symptoms, or after the woman gives birth, preferably immediately after the onset of symptoms(3). Thymectomy increases the remission of the disease or reduces the dose of oral therapy, the benefits usually persisting for many years. Thymectomy during pregnancy and for MUSK-positive patients is contraindicated(4-7).

MG is clinically manifest in ocular or generalized form. The ocular form is found in about 50% of cases as a result of extraocular muscle damage and is manifested by eyelid ptosis and diplopia. However, the generalized form of the disease usually involves the bulbar muscle and is characterized by dysphagia and dysarthria. Uncommon forms of generalized MG involve damage to striated muscles in the upper limbs or respiratory muscles. Although MG is not a genetically transmitted disease, women with congenital MG or childhood symptoms can transmit the disease to the newborn(1,8).

In this review, we want to present the course of the disease in pregnancy, its effect on pregnancy and perinatal outcome, as well as the therapeutic methods, delivery and postpartum care.

2. The influence of pregnancy
on myasthenia gravis

The influence of pregnancy on the evolution of the disease is insignificant in the long-term outcomes. From a clinical point of view, pregnancy can usually be responsible for exacerbating fatigue and, possibly, neurological manifestations, which should lead to a change in the monitoring of the disease and to medication adjustment. These changes are dependent on the severity of the disease before conception, and with properly adjusted therapeutic doses, the disease will be stable(1)

The evolution of MG during pregnancy and from one pregnancy to another is unpredictable, and it is not possible to identify women at risk of aggravation of the disease. Of the patients, 30-41% have exacerbations of the symptoms, 30-45% have a stationary evolution, and about 19-29% may have diminished symptoms or even the remission of the disease(8-10).

Because MG may be exacerbated during the first trimester of pregnancy, the influence of physiological changes (vomiting, intestinal hypomotility, intestinal absorption, increase in blood volume) will lead to a correct adjustment of therapeutic doses. Exacerbation of the symptoms occurs both in the first trimester of pregnancy and in the postpartum period, being determined by hypoventilation secondary to respiratory muscle weakness and ascension of the diaphragm, medication, labor and to birth puerperal infections. Instead, in the second and third trimesters, improved symptoms or even complete remission of the disease have been frequently observed. This can be explained by the physiological immunosuppression encountered in pregnancy, with the decrease of adhesion and polymorphonuclear chemotaxis, which leads to a favorable evolution of autoimmune diseases in the last two trimesters of pregnancy. However, as the uterine volume increases, especially in the third trimester of pregnancy, respiratory dysfunction is observed by decreasing diaphragmatic excursions. In postpartum, the risk of symptoms is increased in the first three months. The risk of maternal complications is increased at the onset of the disease, which can be associated with increased morbidity and mortality, but pregnancy does not change the long-term outcome of MG(9,11-13).

During pregnancy, the risk of urinary tract infections increases, and the treatment with antibiotics such as aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones and macrolides can aggravate the disease(14).

3. The influence of myasthenia gravis
on pregnancy outcomes

Fertility in women with MG is not affected. There has also been no evidence of an increased risk of miscarriage or pregnancy complications such as fetal restriction or preeclampsia. The risks are the same as in the general population. No increased incidence of birth defects was observed(1,15). In contrast, there is an increased frequency of premature rupture of amniotic membranes, especially in cases with symptomatic MG, possibly secondary to corticosteroid use(11).

In case of pregnancy-induced hypertension or preeclampsia, methyldopa or intravenous hydralazine is indicated, along with avoiding beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers, as they may aggravate the symptoms of MG. Levetiracetam and valproic acid are recommended to prevent seizures in severe preeclampsia, and in refractory cases phenytoin may be given with the risk of potentiating muscle weakness. Benzodiazepines also have a relaxing muscle effect and should be used with caution. Neuroprotec­tion with magnesium sulfate is not recommended in these patients because it inhibits the influx of calcium at the neuromuscular junction and may worsen the symptoms of MG, increasing the risk of intubating the patient(16-19).

In the intrauterine period, the transplacental transfer of AChR antibodies into the fetal circulation leads to the appearance of multiplex congenital arthrogryposis, which is associated with decreased fetal active movements(20).

The birth must occur in a hospital with an intensive neonatal care unit. AChR antibodies or specific muscle kinase passively cross the placental barrier and can cause transient MG syndrome in 10-20% of newborns. This transfer of antibodies is independent of the severity of MG in the mother, and even asymptomatic pregnant women may have children with transient MG. It usually appears in the first 2-4 days of life and manifests with respiratory problems, muscle weakness, difficulty feeding, weight in sucking, weak crying, laziness, eyelid ptosis and ophthalmoparesis. These newborns need to be closely monitored. Symptoms usually go away in about two months, and the newborns do not have persistent muscle weakness or motor disabilities. The diagnosis is confirmed based on the symptoms of the newborn, and the detection of pathogenic antibodies is not necessary. Treatment consists in supportive measures, the administration of cholinesterase inhibitors, plasmapheresis or immunoglobulins being reserved for severe cases(8,15,20-22).

Extremely rare, as a result of the production of mater­nal antibodies against fetal AChR, cases of arthrogryposis and fetal AChR inactivation syndrome have been re­ported(23,24).

4. Therapeutic features in myasthenia
gravis during pregnancy

The Food and Drug Administration previous drug classification system was replaced in 2015 by the PLLR system – pregnancy and lactation labeling rule, which provides data on fetal risks of drugs for the fetus during pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding.

A multidisciplinary team composed of obstetricians and neurologists performs the optimal management of pregnant women with MG. Drug therapy used in patients with MG includes pyridostigmine, corticosteroids (prednisone) and immunosuppressive drugs(1).

Pyridostigmine is an anticholinesterase agent used in the first line of treatment. It does not cause teratogenicity in animal models, with no adverse effects on the fetus reported(24). As pregnancy alters intestinal absorption and renal clearance, the level of pyridostigmine should be adjusted. The clinical symptoms are improved and the maximum recommended dose is less than 600 mg/day, avoiding the intravenous administration because it can cause uterine contractions(25).

Corticosteroids (prednisone/prednisolone) are also recommended during pregnancy, especially if the patient used them before pregnancy. Studies have shown that they may increase the cleft lip/palate risk by less than 1% when using them in the first trimester. They are administered in the minimum effective dose and are inactivated by the placenta with low plasma concentrations. There is an increased risk of pregnancy complications, such as gestational diabetes, maternal hypertension, preterm delivery and urinary tract infections(8).

As for azathioprine, it is contraindicated during pregnancy because it has a transplacental passage and has a teratogenic potential of 0-11.8%, with the risk of fetal malformations (e.g., cardiac septal defects). It is also associated with low birth weight and premature birth(9,26). However, there are conflicting studies; in Europe, it is considered safe because the fetal liver does not convert the drug into active metabolites, so the risks are low(9,11).

Mycophenolate mofetil easily crosses the placenta and is associated with an increased incidence of miscarriage and birth defects. EMFO tetrad has been reported to include ear malformations (microtia/atresia of the ear canal), mouth (cleft lip/palate), fingers (brachydactyly, hypoplastic toenail) and other organs malformations (major heart, kidney, CNS, eye, diaphragmatic malformations). Thus, it is recommended to discontinue mycophenolate at least six weeks before pregnancy to prevent these effects(9,27,28).

Calcineurin inhibitors – cyclosporine and tacrolimus – can only be used during pregnancy if the maternal benefits outweigh the fetal risks. Cyclosporine is associa­ted with premature birth, low birth weight, gestational diabetes and gestational hypertension. Tacrolimus is also associated with premature birth weight and low birth weight, with rare congenital malformations, such as cleft palate, being reported, especially if associated with corticoste­roids(29-31).

Methotrexate is strictly forbidden during pregnancy and lactation. This is because it can be associated with an increased risk of miscarriage and with the occurrence of neural tube defects, heart and facial and limb malformations. It is recommended that the treatment be stopped at least three months before pregnancy(11,32).

Cyclophosphamide is associated with craniofacial and distal limb malformations and should be stopped one year before pregnancy(11,15)

Rituximab is a monoclonal antibody used to treat refractory MG or in MUSK-positive patients. Only fetal hematological abnormalities, such as decreased B cell count, and no congenital fetal malformations have been reported. How­ever, its use in pregnancy is limited, as published studies are a few, therefore it is recommended to administer only if the maternal benefits outweigh the fetal risks(11,15,33). The same is true for eculizumab, which is the newest drug indicated in patients with the nonresponsive refractory disease to other therapeutic lines, with no clear data available for use in pregnant patients(34,35).

During pregnancy, the symptoms of MG can worsen, which leads to the use of rescue treatments without any causation regarding the incidence of these crises. Exacerbations of MG can occur in pregnancy and postpartum in 19-50% of patients(21). Identifying these crises and treating them properly can significantly reduce the impact on the mother and the fetus, respectively. During the crisis, acute respiratory failure increases the risk of complications, even maternal death, in extremely severe forms. It is necessary to stabilize the respiratory and cardiac function, as well as the administration of intravenous immunoglobulins or plasmapheresis. In these situations, renal function, coagulation and hydroelectrolyte balance should be monitored, as there is a risk of renal failure, hypercoagulability, hypocalcemia and fluid overload. In addition, when using plasmapheresis, it is necessary to adjust the plasma volume so that the blood volume does not decrease by more than 10%, and due to the increased risk of hypotension, the blood pressure will be monitored(36-38).

5. Labor, delivery and postpartum care

The uterus is made up of smooth muscle fibers with muscarinic AChR and, thus, is not affected by MG autoantibodies. The delivery route must consider the obstetric indications, MG not being a contraindication for vaginal birth. However, other parameters must be evaluated in addition to the obstetric indication, such as the severity of GM symptoms, the mother’s respiratory function and the degree of muscle and/or bulbar weakness during labor. There is an increased risk of instrumental birth due to maternal exhaustion in the second part of labor. The mode of birth does not influence the evolution of MG in the postpartum period(39,40).

The anesthetic management of adequate pain control in the second stage of labor may be beneficial, without significantly influencing the mode of delivery. Thus, it is recommended to use local, spinal, epidural and nitrous oxide anesthesia to reduce maternal fatigue. General anesthesia should be avoided, as it is reserved for cases of maximum urgency due to possible respiratory depression secondary to the use of neuromuscular blockers(39). Caesarean section performed under general anesthesia is recommended in pregnant women with severe forms of MG (severe bulbar and respiratory weakness). The induction and maintenance of anesthesia should be performed with inhalation agents (sevoflurane, isoflurane) or propofol and fentanyl intravenously. Postpartum analgesia should be based on non-opioid drugs, such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Opioid or narcotic painkillers are not recommended as they can cause respiratory depression(11).

Breastfeeding should be encouraged in women with MG, with maternal IgG AChR being only 2% of those in serum. But it does consider the therapeutic regimen and the long-term benefits of breastfeeding. Thus, it is not contraindicated in patients undergoing treatment with corticosteroids, azathioprine, tacrolimus, anticholinesterase inhibitors (e.g., pyridostigmine) or with monoclonal antibodies, because the excretion in breast milk is minimal. In contrast, breastfeeding is not recommended for women treated with mycophenolate, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine or methotrexate, because they are excreted in milk and have teratogenic potential. Although, in the first three months of the postpartum period, a worsening of MG symptoms was demonstrated, the contribution of breastfeeding was not highlighted, on the contrary, having a potential protective role(1,15,20).

6. Conclusions

During pregnancy, the symptoms of myasthenia gravis are unpredictable. Several patients may show a worsening of the clinical manifestations, especially in the case the duration of the disease is below two years. MG continues to cause problems for both the mother and the newborn, which requires special attention from a team of specialists. Prenatal thymectomy has an improved prognosis, while neonatal transient myasthenia gravis has a low incidence. Proper counseling and monitoring of these patients will result in a reduced number of complications and in a favorable prognosis for these pregnancies.

 

Conflict of interests: The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Bibliografie

  1. Ferrero S, Esposito F, Biamonti M, Bentivoglio G, Ragni N. Myasthenia Gravis during Pregnancy. Expert Rev Neurother. 2008;8(6):979–988. https://doi.org/10.1586/14737175.8.6.979.

  2. Sheikh S, Alvi U, Soliven B, Rezania K. Drugs That Induce or Cause Deterioration of Myasthenia Gravis: An Update. J Clin Med. 2021;10(7):1537. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10071537.

  3. Lisak RP, Richman DP. Thymectomy and Myasthenia Gravis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2020;117(51):32195–32196. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022901117.

  4. Evoli A, Meacci E. An Update on Thymectomy in Myasthenia Gravis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2019;19(9):823–833. https://doi.org/10.1080/14737175.2019.1600404.

  5. Su M, Liu X, Wang L, et al. Risk factors for pregnancy-related clinical outcome in myasthenia gravis: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2022;17(1):52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-022-02205-z.

  6. Romi F. Thymoma in Myasthenia Gravis: From Diagnosis to Treatment. Autoimmune Dis. 2011;2011:474512. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/474512.

  7. Mao Z, Hu X, Lu Z, Hackett ML. Prognostic factors of remission in myasthenia gravis after thymectomy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2015;48(1):18-24. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejcts/ezu309.

  8. Hamel J, Ciafaloni E. An Update: Myasthenia Gravis and Pregnancy. Neurol Clin. 2018;36(2):355–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2018.01.005.

  9. Bansal R, Goyal MK, Modi M. Management of Myasthenia Gravis during Pregnancy. Indian J Pharmacol. 2018;50(6):302–308. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijp.IJP_452_17.

  10. Djelmis J, Sostarko M, Mayer D, Ivanisevic M. Myasthenia gravis in pregnancy: report on 69 cases. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2002;104(1):21-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-2115(02)00051-9.

  11. Ducci RD, Kay CSK, Fustes OJH, Werneck LC, Lorenzoni PJ, Scola RH. Myasthenia gravis during pregnancy: what care should be taken?. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2021;79(7):624-629. https://doi.org/10.1590/0004-282X-ANP-2020-0407.

  12. Binks S, Vincent A, Palace J. Myasthenia Gravis: A Clinical-Immunological Update. J Neurol. 2016;263(4):826–834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-015-7963-5.

  13. Téllez-Zenteno JF, Hernández-Ronquillo L, Salinas V, Estanol B, da Silva O. Myasthenia gravis and pregnancy: clinical implications and neonatal outcome. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2004;5:42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-5-42.

  14. Massey JM, De Jesus-Acosta C. Pregnancy and myasthenia gravis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2014;20(1 Neurology of Pregnancy):115-127. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000443840.33310.bd.

  15. Gilhus NE. Myasthenia Gravis Can Have Consequences for Pregnancy and the Developing Child. Front Neurol. 2020;11:554. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00554.

  16. Shames Y, Errante M, Keteku NP. Myasthenia Gravis: A Rare Neurologic Complication of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy. J Adv Pract Oncol. 2022;13(2):151-157. https://doi.org/10.6004/jadpro.2022.13.2.6.

  17. Lake AJ, Al Khabbaz A, Keeney R. Severe Preeclampsia in the Setting of Myasthenia Gravis. Case Rep Obstet Gynecol. 2017;2017:9204930. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/9204930.

  18. Hassan A. Myasthenia Gravis and Preeclampsia: Dot All the I’s and Cross All the T’s. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2017;12(5):461–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtumed.2017.01.006.

  19. Ozcan J, Balson IF, Dennis AT. New Diagnosis Myasthenia Gravis and Preeclampsia in Late Pregnancy. BMJ Case Rep. 2015;2015:bcr2014208323. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2014-208323.

  20. Kühnert M, Schmidt M, Kuschel B, Schäfer-Graf UM. Recommendations of the AGG (Section Maternal Disease) for Myasthenia Gravis in Pregnancy. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2021;81(12):1301-1306. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1541-7964.

  21. Ducci RD, Lorenzoni PJ, Kay CS, Werneck LC, Scola RH. Clinical follow-up of pregnancy in myasthenia gravis patients. Neuromuscul Disord. 2017;27(4):352-357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmd.2017.01.021.

  22. Gilhus NE, Hong Y. Maternal Myasthenia Gravis Represents a Risk for the Child through Autoantibody Transfer, Immunosuppressive Therapy and Genetic Influence. Eur J Neurol. 2018;25(12):1402–1409. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.13788.

  23. Jeannet PY, Marcoz JP, Kuntzer T, Roulet-Perez E. Isolated facial and bulbar paresis: a persistent manifestation of neonatal myasthenia gravis. Neurology. 2008;70(3):237-238. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000278101.95510.09.

  24. Edmundson C, Guidon AC. Neuromuscular Disorders in Pregnancy. Semin Neurol. 2017;37(06):643–652. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0037-1608785.

  25. Levine BS, Parker RM. Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Studies of Pyridostigmine Bromide in Rats. Toxicology. 1991;69(3):291–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/0300-483x(91)90188-7.

  26. Goldstein LH, Dolinsky G, Greenberg R, et al. Pregnancy outcome of women exposed to azathioprine during pregnancy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol. 2007;79(10):696-701. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdra.20399.

  27. Perez-Aytes A, Marin-Reina P, Boso V, Ledo A, Carey JC, Vento M. Mycophenolate mofetil embryopathy: A newly recognized teratogenic syndrome. Eur J Med Genet. 2017;60(1):16-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmg.2016.09.014.

  28. Merlob P, Stahl B, Klinger G. Tetrada of the Possible Mycophenolate Mofetil Embryopathy: A Review. Reprod Toxicol Elmsford N. 2009;28(1):105–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.02.007.

  29. Zhang Z, Yang C, Zhang L, Yi Q, Hao Z. Efficacy and Safety of Tacrolimus in Myasthenia Gravis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ann Indian Acad Neurol. 2017;20(4):341–347. https://doi.org/10.4103/aian.AIAN_97_17.

  30. Itani K, Nakamura M, Wate R, et al. Efficacy and safety of tacrolimus as long-term monotherapy for myasthenia gravis. Neuromuscul Disord. 2021;31(6):512-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmd.2021.02.010.

  31. Menon D, Barnett C, Bril V. Novel Treatments in Myasthenia Gravis. Front Neurol. 2020;11:538. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.00538.

  32. Damkier P, Kaplan YC. In Utero Exposure to Methotrexate and Risk of Congenital Malformations. Am J Med Genet A. 2015;167A(10):2488–2489. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.a.37153.

  33. Young C, McGill SC. Rituximab for the Treatment of Myasthenia Gravis: A 2021 Update; CADTH Health Technology Review. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health: Ottawa (ON), 2021.

  34. Howard JF Jr, Utsugisawa K, Benatar M, et al. Safety and efficacy of eculizumab in anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive refractory generalised myasthenia gravis (REGAIN): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study [published correction appears in Lancet Neurol. 2017 Dec;16(12 ):954]. Lancet Neurol. 2017;16(12):976-986. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30369-1.

  35. Lascano AM, Lalive PH. Update in Immunosuppressive Therapy of Myasthenia Gravis. Autoimmun Rev. 2021;20(1):102712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2020.102712.

  36. Eienbröker C, Seitz F, Spengler A, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin maintenance treatment in myasthenia gravis: a randomized, controlled trial sample size simulation. Muscle Nerve. 2014;50(6):999-1004. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.24259.

  37. Gamez J, Salvado M, Casellas M, Manrique S, Castillo F. Intravenous Immunoglobulin as Monotherapy for Myasthenia Gravis during Pregnancy. J Neurol Sci. 2017;383:118–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2017.10.037.

  38. Waters J. Management of Myasthenia Gravis in Pregnancy. Neurol Clin. 2019;37(1):113–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2018.09.003.

  39. Almeida C, Coutinho E, Moreira D, Santos E, Aguiar J. Myasthenia Gravis and Pregnancy: Anaesthetic Management – a Series of Cases. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2010;27(11):985–990. https://doi.org/10.1097/EJA.0b013e32833e263f.

  40. Bashuk RG, Krendel DA. Myasthenia Gravis Presenting as Weakness after Magnesium Administration. Muscle Nerve. 1990;13(8):708–712. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.880130808.

Articole din ediţiile anterioare

ORIGINAL ARTICLES | Ediţia 1 69 / 2021

Cum influenţează patologia rata cumulativă de sarcini la pacientele cu răspuns ovarian scăzut?

Elena Alina Bordea, Andreea Carp-Velişcu, Prof. Dr. Elvira Brătilă, Diana Mihai

Am efectuat acest studiu retrospectiv observaţional cu scopul de a vedea cum este influenţată rata de sarcini la pacientele cu răspuns ovarian scăz...

16 aprilie 2021
ORIGINAL ARTICLES | Ediţia 1 68 / 2020

Valoarea predictivă a indicilor Doppler ai arterei uterine la 11-14 săptămâni pentru complicaţiile hipertensive ale sarcinii

Voicu Dascau, G. Furău, Cristina Onel, Maria Puşchiţa

Introducere. Complicaţiile hipertensive ale sarcinii pot duce adesea la situaţii grave, chiar cu potenţial letal pentru mamă şi făt. Ecografia Dopp...

16 martie 2020
REVIEW ARTICLES | Ediţia 3 68 / 2020

Sarcina şi naşterea în timpul pandemiei de COVID-19. Implicaţii pentru gravidă şi naştere

Ana Maria Alexandra Stănescu, Ana-Maria Cioti, Anca A. Simionescu, Ioana Veronica Grăjdeanu

In late December 2019, a series of pneumonia cases of unknown cause appeared in Wuhan City, Central China, which were reported to the World Health ...

23 octombrie 2020
REVIEW ARTICLES | Ediţia 3 70 / 2022

Impactul endometriozei asupra sarcinii

Oana Bodean, Delia Grădinaru-Fometescu, Alina Potorac, Diana Cristina Secară, Monica Mihaela Cîrstoiu

Endometrioza şi adenomioza sunt patologii care afectează frecvent femeile de vârstă reproductivă. Obţinerea şi menţinerea unei sarcini se fac de mu...

31 octombrie 2022