INTERDISCIPLINARY

Preeclampsia şi boala parodontală maternă

 Preeclampsia and maternal periodontal disease

First published: 20 septembrie 2019

Editorial Group: MEDICHUB MEDIA

DOI: 10.26416/Gine.25.3.2019.2498

Abstract

Preeclampsia is one of the adverse outcomes of pregnancy. The Gram-negative anaerobes harbored in gingival pockets of pregnant women suggest that maternal periodontal disease might be a risk factor. However, the epidemiological studies are oscillating between positive and no association of preeclampsia with chronic marginal periodontitis. The periodontal treatment during pregnancy aiming to suppress the outcome of pathogenic mechanisms developed by periopathogens is thought to be beneficial for the general status of preeclamptic women. Nevertheless, at present, it is not clear to what extent the maternal periodontal disease might be a risk factor of preeclampsia or only an epiphenomenon of the systemic inflammatory response.

Keywords
pregnancy, maternal periodontal disease, preeclampsia

Rezumat

Preeclampsia este una dintre complicaţiile sarcinii. Anaerobii Gram-negativi din pungile parodontale ale gravidelor suge­rea­ză că boala parodontală maternă ar putea fi un factor de risc. Totuşi, studiile epidemiologice au avut rezultate diverse, de la găsirea unor corelaţii pozitive între preeclampsie şi parodontita mar­gi­nală cronică până la lipsa unei relaţii cauzale. Trata­men­­tul parodontal în cursul sarcinii, care urmăreşte îndepăr­ta­­rea consecinţelor exercitării mecanismelor patogene asu­pra pa­­ro­­don­ţiului marginal de către periopatogeni, este con­si­de­rat a fi benefic pentru sănătatea generală a gravidelor cu pre­eclam­p­sie. Cu toate acestea, în prezent nu este clar în ce măsură boa­­la parodontală maternă poate fi un factor de risc pentru pre­eclamp­sie sau este numai un epifenomen al răspunsului in­fla­mator sistemic.

Introduction

The medical and dental literature of the last 20 years highlighted a putative association between adverse pregnancy outcomes and maternal chronic marginal periodontitis(1-7). No doubt that due to its worldwide morbidity and risk of mortality, affecting 5-10% of all pregnancies, with a lower rate in western countries and in United States, preeclampsia is one of the most debated issues of maternal and perinatal pathology(8). Since usually a long-standing inflammatory process is suspected to be a potential risk factor of adverse pregnancy outcomes, it is thought that preeclampsia could be also induced by the progressive gingival inflammation in pregnant women(8-13).

Preeclampsia – definition and etiology

According to ISSHP (International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy) guidelines(14,15), preeclampsia is defined as a multisystem disorder characterized by high blood pressure (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg) measured on two different occasions at least 4 hours apart after 20 weeks of gestation, peripheral edema, and proteinuria (≥300 mg/24 h). In more advanced cases, there may occur liver dysfunctions and coagulation modifications(7,8,14-16).

The multifactorial etiology of preeclampsia includes various risk factors such as placental insufficiency induced by local hypoxia and acute atherosis, pregestational hypertension and obesity, gestational weight gain, genetic susceptibility, advanced maternal age, race, nulliparity, personal history of preeclampsia, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, renal disorders, urinary tract infections, immune responses such as anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome, and enhanced systemic inflammation(7,8,16,17).

Though currently it is established that a prolonged inflammation of fetal-placental unit and a high blood level of systemic inflammatory markers may result in adverse pregnancy outcomes, actually the etiology of preeclampsia still remains unclear(8,18).

Maternal periodontal disease and preeclampsia

In pregnancy, the interaction of sex steroid hormones with inflammatory mediators progressively deteriorates the initial gingival condition triggered by dental plaque. Moreover, the prolonged daily release of sex steroid hormones throughout pregnancy (estradiol 20 mg, estriol 80 mg, progesterone 300 mg) results in higher prevalence and severity of maternal gingival inflammation when compared with postpartum women(19). However, despite the exacerbation of gingival inflammation, the plaque scores during pregnancy remained unchanged following parturition(19).

The clinical inspection in pregnant women suggests a positive association between maternal inflammatory gingival status and preeclampsia. It was observed an overall increase of gingival probing depth, bleeding on probing, and the gingival crevicular fluid as compared with controls. However, there was not observed any attachment loss(19). The meta-analysis of case-control studies is consistent with these findings(18), which were also described in postpartum women(10).

The pathogenic relationship between periodontal disease and preeclampsia

Basically, the pathogenic mechanisms involved in preeclampsia are placental ischemia and by blood steered circulating inflammatory mediators(16). As well known, the inflammatory process is a common feature of cardiovascular disease, adverse pregnancy outcomes and periodontal disease(20-23). Relying on a meta-analysis study, maternal periodontal disease and urinary tract infections might be important risk factors for preeclampsia. However, no significant associations were found between the presence of antibodies to some typical microorganisms involved and this adverse outcome of pregnancy(24).

Neither the anti-inflammatory periodontal treatment proved a significant lowering of preeclampsia incidence(7). Moreover, since the risk of preeclampsia was not found in all population studies, it seems that maternal periodontal disease might not have a causal effect(7).

When evaluating the association between maternal periodontal infections and the risk of preeclampsia, it is mandatory to avoid the fluctuation of “periodontitis case definition”, because the analysis outcome might be detoured(5). Accordingly, unlike the usual periodontitis definition that supports a significant cause-effect association, the use of continuous variables such as probing depth describes a non-significant one(5,7,18,24). The disparate conclusions found in literature are also influenced by the chosen criteria in case definition, study design, sample size and statistical analysis(7). It also seems that during assessment of pregnant women, the maternal periodontal disease must be rather considered an independent risk factor for preeclampsia(8).

Additionally, during the last decade, the maternal periodontal disease is also considered a putative risk factor of preeclampsia, relying on pathogenic mechanisms secondary induced by chronic systemic inflammation(8). Periopathogens and their by-products may enter the maternal blood circulation and settle afterwards into the fetal-placental unit, inducing an oxidative stress, which is in charge with preeclampsia occurrence(16). Additionally, it was found that two main components of red complex microorganisms, well-known for their virulence trait and the ability of releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Tannerella forsythensis, were more prevalent in a preeclamptic study group than in controls(25).

The exacerbation of gingival inflammatory response in pregnant women is substantiated by increased expression of inflammatory markers. It was observed that the adverse pregnancy outcomes are mainly associated with increased level of blood pro-inflammatory cytokines(20), C-reactive protein(16,22,26), and Pentraxin 3 (PTX3)(27). Numerous studies related about the elevated serum levels of CRP (C-reactive protein) found in both preeclampsia and maternal chronic periodontal disease(7,28,29).

Of special interest is the functional perturbation of VEGF, resulting in endothelial dysfunction(30). In preeclampsia, there is also discussed the possible role of TNF-, NO, endothelin-1, and thromboxane A2(16). It was observed that one of the main periopathogens, Porphyromonas gingivalis, obviously increased in gingival tissue the expression of endothelin-1, which at its turn elevated the local IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-(31).

Epidemiological studies worldwide

In case-control and cross-sectional studies, the maternal periodontal disease was significantly associated with preeclampsia(5,11,12,18).

A clinical and microbiological Colombian survey found maternal chronic periodontitis in 63.8% of preeclamptic women versus 36.6% of controls, and highlighted the increased prevalence of red complex periopathogens in case of preeclamptic adverse outcome of pregnancy(25).

Evaluating the anaerobic microflora of subgingival biofilms and placental samples, an Egyptian study found that the number of anaerobes in both locations was increased in preeclamptic women. A significant higher level of serum TNF- was also triggered in affected individuals than in controls. Accordingly, it was highlighted a statistic relationship between chronic periodontal infection and preeclampsia(32).

An Indian study on pregnant women affected by periodontal disease, namely 100 preeclamptic and 100 non-preeclamptic, revealed that moderate to severe periodontal infection increased the risk and rate of preterm delivery in preeclamptic women(33).

Though clinical attachment level, gingival recession, and bleeding on probing were significantly increased in a group of 105 Iranian preeclamptic women, the same periodontal examination of 105 non-preeclamptic pregnant women proved that there were no differences in the pocket depth(34).

According to a cross-sectional postpartum study in Northern Tanzania describing a significant association of maternal periodontal disease with preeclampsia, it must be considered the chronic marginal periodontitis as an independent risk factor in triggering this adverse pregnancy outcome(35).

A meta-analysis of literature until 2013, based on the evaluation of epidemiologic relationship between oral infections and preeclampsia, suggested that maternal chronic periodontal disease raised the risk of this adverse outcome in pregnancy(36).

Although recognizing the periodontal disease as putative risk factor for preeclampsia, another meta-analysis underlined that important differences were found in definition and diagnosis of maternal periodontitis. Moreover, the quality of studies methodology was sometimes doubtful(37).

A comparative survey in Thailand found after delivery insignificant variations in clinical parameters of maternal periodontal disease between preeclamptic and normotensive women. No linear increase in risk of preeclampsia could be linked to the degree of periodontal disease progress. However, despite the different diagnostic criteria of periodontal inflammation, the magnitude and direction of associations between maternal periodontal disease and preeclampsia were mainly alike(8).

Though the majority of papers support the possible association of preeclampsia and maternal periodontal disease, another Iranian study observing at delivery plaque index, gingival bleeding index and attachment loss could not find statistically significant differences between preeclamptic pregnant women and controls(13).

Similarly, a blinded case-control study after delivery on 115 preeclamptic women and 230 normotensive controls investigating plaque index, gingival index, periodontal probing depth, clinical attachment loss and gingival recession did not confirm this pathogenic hypothesis(38).

Incidentally, about one third of papers analyzed in a review study did not describe an association between preeclampsia and maternal disease(11). Nevertheless, the overview of literature confirms that a generalized inflammatory response of pregnant women substantiates the role of inflammation as pathogenic mechanism in triggering preeclampsia(11). Since no paper reported that the periodontal treatment during pregnancy could reduce the preeclamptic rate, presently it seems still doubtful if the maternal periodontal disease might be considered a causal factor. Moreover, it is also forwarded the hypothesis that periodontal disease in pregnancy could be rather an epiphenomenon of the systemic enhanced response(11). Further research is required in this field.

Periodontal therapy and preeclampsia

Unlike preeclampsia, which despite the possibility to be treated it is more difficult to be precluded, clinical experience demonstrated that periodontal disease in pregnant women may be efficiently prevented and treated(8).

Despite the conflicting data concerning the efficacy of periodontal therapy, there is a general agreement that the oral hygiene during pregnancy may be improved since the pregnant women can safely reduce the bacterial biofilms by managing gingival cleaning. Commonly, the periodontal therapy in pregnancy is conducted to eliminate or reduce the risk of maternal periodontal disease(7,39).

The basic periodontal therapy is non-surgical and proved to be safe. However, according to literature, it is still doubtful if the routine non-surgical pe­rio­­dontal therapy may significantly reduce the in­ci­dence of preeclampsia since the published results are contradictory(7).

Usually, in pregnant women the conventional scaling and root planning associated with daily rinsing by using 0.12% chlorhexidine resulted in the improvement of periodontal status, including reducing of probing depth and bleeding on probing, comparable with controls (non-pregnant women)(7).

During the first trimester of pregnancy, it is recommended basic preventive therapy following home-care instruction. The second trimester is dedicated to routine dental care in order to control the ongoing maternal periodontal disease and prevent the potential risky issues which could appear during late pregnancy. Any major surgical management of gingival should be rescheduled after delivery. However, due to potentially increased inflammation, a periodontal maintenance visit is recommended until mid-third trimester, with caution to avoid a prolonged chair time(39).

At present, according to guidelines of California Dental Association, preeclampsia is not considered a contraindication for the dental care of pregnant women(39,40).

Conclusions

An increased number of publications suggest that maternal chronic periodontal disease, due to its characteristics of polymicrobial infection, can be considered a potential risk factor of preeclampsia. The periodontal treatment during pregnancy aiming to suppress the outcome of pathogenic mechanisms developed by periopathogens is thought to be beneficial for the general status of preeclamptic women. However, at present, it is not yet clear to what extent the maternal periodontal disease might be a risk factor or it is an epiphenomenon of the systemic inflammatory response. 

Acknowledgements: All authors have an equal contribution to the first author.

Conflict of interests: The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Bibliografie

  1. Scannapieco FA, Bush RB, Paju S. Periodontal disease as a risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcomes. A systematic review. Ann Periodontol. 2003; 8:70-8.
  2. Williams RC, Paquette D. Periodontitis as a risk for systemic disease. In: Lindhe J, Karring T, Lang NP, eds. Clinical periodontology and implant dentistry, 4th ed., Blackwell-Munksgaard, Oxford, 2003; 366-86.
  3. Shub A, Swain JR, Newnham JP. Periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2006; 19:521-8.
  4. Agueda A, Ramon JM, Manau C, Guerrero A, Echeverria JJ. Periodontal disease as a risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcomes: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Periodontol. 2008; 35:16-22.
  5. Manau C, Echeverria A, Agueda A, Guerrero A, Echeverria JJ. Periodontal disease definition may determine the association between periodontitis and pregnancy outcomes. J Clin Periodontol. 2008; 35:385-97.
  6. Wimmer G, Pihlstrom BL. A critical assessment of adverse pregnancy outcome and periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol. 2008; 35(8 Suppl):380-97.
  7. Armitage GC. Bi-directional relationship between pregnancy and periodontal disease. Periodontology 2000. 2013; 61:160-76.
  8. Lohsoonthorn V, Kungsadalpipob K, Chanchareonsook P, Limpongsanurak S,  Vanichjakvong O, Sutdhibhisal S, Sookprome C, Wongkittikraiwan N, Kamolpornwijit W, Jantarasaengaram S,  Manotaya S,  Siwawej V, Barlow WE, Fitzpatrick AL, Williams MA. Maternal periodontal disease and risk of preeclampsia: a case-control study. Am J Hypertens. 2009; 22:457-63.
  9. Riché EL, Boggess KA, Lief S, Murtha AP, Auten RL, Beck JD, Offenbacher S. Periodontal disease increases the risk of preterm delivery among preeclamptic women. Ann Periodontol. 2002; 7:95-101.
  10. Boggess KA, Lief S, Murtha AP, Moss K, Beck J, Offenbacher S. Maternal periodontal disease is associated with an increased risk for preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2003; 101:227-31.
  11. Kunnen A, van Doormaal JJ, Abbas F, Aarnoudse JG, van Pampus MG, Faas MM. Periodontal disease and pre-eclampsia: a systematic review. J Clin Periodontol. 2010; 37:1075-87.
  12. Politano GT, Passini R, Nomura ML, Velloso L, Morari J, Couto E. Correlation between periodontal disease, inflammatory alterations and pre-eclampsia. 
  13. J Periodont Res. 2011; 46:505-11.
  14. Yaghini J, Mostajeran F, Afshari E, Naghsh N. Is periodontal disease related to preeclampsia? Dent Res J (Isfahan). 2012; 9:770-3.
  15. Bramham K, Briley AL, Seed P, Poston L, Shennan AH, Chappell LC. Adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes in women with previous preeclampsia: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011; 204:512.e1-9.
  16. Macdonald-Wallis C, Tilling K, Fraser A, Nelson SM, Lawlor DA. Gestational wight gain as risk factor for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2013; 209:327:e1-17.
  17. Grace S, Lakshmanan R. Preeclampsia and periodontitis – unearthing the hidden links. J Med Sci Clin Res. 2014; 2:458-71.
  18. Luchian IB, Nada ES, Dumitru VA, Albu DF, Patrascu A, Goganau AM, Albu SD, Albu CC. New various histopathological findings of placenta in preeclampsia. Rev Chim (Bucharest). 2019; 70:1979-82.
  19. Ide M, Papapanou PN. Epidemiology of association between maternal periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes – systematic review. 
  20. J Clin Periodontol. 2013; 40(suppl.14):S181-S194.
  21. Mariotti A, Mawhinney M. Endocrinology of sex steroid hormones and cell dynamics in the periodontium. Periodontology 2000. 2013; 61:69-88.
  22. Petre I, Craina M, Suciu N, Sisu A, Moleriu RD, Oancea R, Radu D, Agoston-Vas AE, Ilie AC. The role of C-reactive protein and interleukin 6 in the cases of preeclapsia associated with obesity. Rev Chim (Bucharest). 2019; 70:805-8.
  23. Srinivas SK, Sammel MD, Stamilio DM, Clothier B, Jeffcoat MK, Parry S, Macones GA, Metlay J. Periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes: is there an association? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2009; 200:497.e1-8.
  24. Ruma M, Boggess K, Moss K, Jared H, Murtha A, Beck J, Offenbacher S. Maternal periodontal disease, systemic inflammation, and risk for preeclampsia. J Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 198:389.e1-5
  25. Hradecky L, Subrt I, Ulcova-Gallova Z. Urgent termination of pregnancy in pre-eclampsia and panel of antiphospholipid antobodies. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2009; 62:412-7
  26. Conde-Agudelo A, Villar J, Lindheimer M. Maternal infection and risk of preeclampsia: systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 198:7-22.
  27. Contreras A, Herrera JA, Soto JE, Arce RM, Jaramillo A, Botero JE. Periodontitis is associated with preeclampsia in pregnant women. 
  28. J Periodontol. 2006; 77:182-8.
  29. Batashki I, Milchev N, Topalovska D, Uchikova E, Mateva N. C-reactive protein in women with preeclampsia. Akush Ginekol (Sofia). 2006; 45(suppl 1):47-50.
  30. Cetin I, Cozzi V, Pasqualini F, Nebuloni M, Garlanda C, Vago L, Pardi G, Mantovani A. Elevated maternal levels of th long petraxin 3 in preeclampsia and intrauterine growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006; 194:1347-53.
  31. Sharma A, Ramesh A, Thomas B. Evaluation of plasma C-reactive protein levels in pregnant women with and without periodontal disease: A comparative study. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2009; 13:145-9.
  32. Khairnar MS, Pawar BR, Marawar PP, Khairnar DM. Estimation of changes in C-reactive protein level and pregnancy outcome after nonsurgical supportive periodontal therapy in women affected with periodontitis in a rural set up of India. Contemp Clin Dent. 2015; 6(suppl 1):S5-S11.
  33. Wu FT, Stefanini MO, Mac Gabhann F, Kontos CD, Annex BH, Popel AS. A systems biologic perspective on sVEGFRI: its biological function, pathogenic role and therapeutic use. J Cell Mol Med. 2010; 14:528-52.
  34. Yamamoto E, Awano S, Koseki T, Ansai T, Takehara T. Expression of endothelin 1 in gingival epithelial cells. J Periodontol Res. 2003; 38:417-21.
  35. Aly LA, El-Menoufy H, Elsharkawy RT, Zagloul MZ, Sabry D. Maternal chronic oral infections with  periodontitis and pericoronaritis as a possible factor for preeclampsia in Egyptian pregnant women (microbiological and serological study). Future Dent J. 2015; 1:23-32.
  36. Pattanashetti JI, Nagathan VM, Rao SM. Evaluation of periodontitis as a risk for preterm birth among preeclamptic and non-preeclamptic pregnant women – a case control study. J Clin Diagn Res. 2013; 7:1776-8.
  37. Sayar F, Sadat Hoseini M, Abbaspour S. Effect of periodontal disease on preeclampsia. Iranian J Publ Health. 2011; 40:122-7.
  38. Gesase N, Miranda-Rius J, Brunet-Llobet L. Lahor-Soler E, Mahande MJ, Masenga G. The association between periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Northern Tanzania: a cross-sectional study. Afri Health Sci. 2018; 18:601-11.
  39. Wei BJ, Chen YJ, Yu L, Wu B. Peridontal disease and risk of preeclampsia: a meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8:e70901.
  40. Sgolastra F, Petrucci A, Severino M, Gatto R, Monaco A. Relationship between periodontitis and pre-eclampsia: a meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8:e71387.
  41. Khader YS, Jibreal M, Al-Omiri M, Amarin Z. Lack of association between periodontal parameters and preeclampsia. J Periodontol. 2006; 77:1681-7.
  42. Otomo-Corgel J. Dental management of the female patient. Periodontology 2000. 2013; 61:219-31.
  43. California Dental Association. Oral health during pregnancy and early childhood: evidence-based guidelines for health professionals. CDA Foundation, 2010.

Articole din ediţiile anterioare

OBSTETRICĂ | Ediţia 1 19 / 2018

Corelaţii între trombofiliile ereditare şi avorturile recurente

Diana Ioana Voicu, Oana Bodean, Octavian Munteanu, Luciana Arsene, Călin Boieru, Prof. Dr. Elvira Brătilă, Monica Mihaela Cîrstoiu

Trombofiliile caracterizează o serie de stări de hiper­coa­gu­labilitate care predispun la formarea de tromboze ce apar ca urmare a unei predispozi...

22 martie 2018
INTERDISCIPLINARY | Ediţia 1 23 / 2019

Modificările statusului periodontal în sarcină – review şi prezentare a unui caz clinic

Andrei Kozma, Norina Forna

Sarcina este o perioadă caracterizată de schimbări fiziologice legate de o vulnerabilitate ridicată a sănătăţii orale. Variaţia prevalenţei modific...

08 martie 2019
OBSTETRICS | Ediţia 2 32 / 2021

Experienţa noastră în managementul gravidelor infectate cu SARS-CoV-2

Diana Cristina Secară, Ana Veronica Uzunov, Mădălina Daniela Banete, Maria Sajin, Monica Mihaela Cîrstoiu

Infecţia cu SARS-CoV-2 în rândul pacientelor gravide repre­zin­tă o nouă provocare în întreaga lume. Stabilirea unei mo­da­li­tăţi eficiente de a p...

15 aprilie 2021
MOAŞE ŞI ASISTENŢI MEDICALI | Ediţia 10 (4) / 2015

Sarcina la adolescente - o problemă la nivel global

Daniela Stan, Mihai Mitran

S-a spus că numărul adolescentelor însărcinate atinge proporţii epidemice. Însă nu ne putem da cu adevărat seama de amploarea acestui fenomen dacă ...

15 noiembrie 2015